Research Article
Studies of Food & Drug Interaction with Leflunomide
Sobia Shabir*,
Syeda Tehreem Qamar,
Rida Fatima,
Ruhanuddin Shaikh,
Jawaid Shabir,
Shabir Ahmed Shaikh
Issue:
Volume 12, Issue 1, February 2026
Pages:
1-6
Received:
20 September 2025
Accepted:
11 October 2025
Published:
30 January 2026
Abstract: Leflunomide is a well-known rheumatoid arthritis drug. The study's main objective was to evaluate the food and drug interaction studies of leflunomide/visible spectrophotometer technology. A previously developed selective, observant, and exact UV spectroscopic approach for quantitative analysis of leflunomide was applied here. Stock solutions of 1 mMole (0.027 g dissolved in 100ml volumetric flask in methanol) were prepared and diluted to concentration ranges of 0.01 to 0.055 mMole using the same solvent for the leflunomide assay. 50 g mL-1 solutions of leflunomide were prepared to study the potential interaction between leflunomide and fruit juices (apple, orange, and grey fruit). Individually, these solutions were diluted in an equimolar ratio and maintained on a water bath at 37±5°C for three hours. The UV/visible spectrophotometer was being used to evaluate these solutions. Although leflunomide and juices remained constant throughout the experiment, the interaction spectra of all juices with the drug showed that the availability of leflunomide was changed in the presence of all juices. In methanol, leflunomide used to have a maximum absorbance in the ultraviolet region at (259nm), but after interaction with fruit juices (apple, orange, and grey fruit), complex formation was indicated by a change in spectrum shape, pattern, and maximum absorbance with an increase in percentage availability (113.90 -139.64%) as the interaction began, λmax shifted to 271 nm. There was a clear interaction between leflunomide and these juices that could change the drug's pharmacological effects. Leflunomide's maximal absorbance in methanol was found to be 259 nm, its spectra changed following interaction with fruit juices, indicating that a complex was formed. Co-administration of these medications should be avoided, as a result.
Abstract: Leflunomide is a well-known rheumatoid arthritis drug. The study's main objective was to evaluate the food and drug interaction studies of leflunomide/visible spectrophotometer technology. A previously developed selective, observant, and exact UV spectroscopic approach for quantitative analysis of leflunomide was applied here. Stock solutions of 1 ...
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Review Article
Environmental Contexts and the Neural Basis of Memory and Spatial Navigation
Issue:
Volume 12, Issue 1, February 2026
Pages:
7-16
Received:
18 February 2026
Accepted:
3 March 2026
Published:
17 March 2026
DOI:
10.11648/j.ejcbs.20261201.12
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Abstract: Memory and spatial navigation are essential cognitive skills that enable animals to see, analyze, and interact with their surroundings effectively, promoting learning, adaptation, and survival. These tasks rely on coordinated activity within extensive brain networks, with the hippocampus playing a vital role in the construction of cognitive maps and the processing of environmental data. Studies including animals, human neuroimaging, and ecological research indicate that environmental context significantly influences the brain systems responsible for memory and navigation. This paper analyzes the impact of several environmental factors specifically enrichment, deprivation, stress, ecological demands, developmental experiences, and modern technology on spatial cognition. Enriched, complex surroundings enhance hippocampus neuroplasticity, refine synapse architecture, and solidify cortical representations, resulting in superior navigational flexibility and memory retention. Conversely, impoverished or monotonous conditions, stress, and social deprivation can impair hippocampal function, reduce cognitive flexibility, and hinder spatial learning. Ecological and evolutionary constraints also influence species-specific navigational adaptations, shown in variations in hippocampus shape and neuronal circuitry. In humans, contemporary lifestyle alterations present supplementary obstacles to innate navigational skills. Urbanization and the prevalent use of GPS technology are associated with diminished activation of hippocampal-dependent spatial strategies, potentially undermining the construction of cognitive maps over time. This mini review presents mechanistic evidence from rodent studies and human neuroimaging to create an integrated framework showing how environmental inputs affect memory systems at cellular, circuit, and network scales. Understanding these interactions can lead to translational opportunities in cognitive resilience, aging, rehabilitation, and neuroscience-based architectural design.
Abstract: Memory and spatial navigation are essential cognitive skills that enable animals to see, analyze, and interact with their surroundings effectively, promoting learning, adaptation, and survival. These tasks rely on coordinated activity within extensive brain networks, with the hippocampus playing a vital role in the construction of cognitive maps an...
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,
Dhevi Mirudula Sri
